Role of Ngos in National Development and Security

THE ROLE OF NGO’S IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECURITY By ( IBRAHIM TUDU) Chairman, Zamfara State Coaltion of NGOs, Nigeria email: [email  protected] com INTRODUCTION: The term NGO has now become a popular in academic, policy and international cycles. The letters N. G. O is an abbreviation, which stands for Non-Governmental Organization, literally speaking because they are not formed by the government, not controlled by Government bureaucracy and they do not participate in decision or policy making of Government(s). SOME HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES For a better understanding of the present topic, one needs to have an insight into the history or evolution of NGOs. Community based organization’s evolution dates back decades ago. Some of the then existing voluntary organizations were very small, inexperienced and generally localized and some exist with different names, such as societies and clubs committees which are mostly friends, relations, professional groups, etc. Generally, they lack some relevant organizational capacities, funding and networking. Some of the oldest voluntary organizations established were the Anti-Slave Trade Society established in the year 1840. Another old and still surviving NGO established for humanitarian services was the International Committee for the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, an organization that out dates even the United Nations. It was established in the year 1863. It has played a major role in offering humanitarian services in major wars and conflicts. NGOs globally are developed from the need to coordinate some specifically defined activities and objectives. Beginning from 19th century, Mosques, Churches, Professional, Scientific and Cultural groups formed all kinds of associations that execute the work of NGOs. In the 20th century, specialized bodies started to spring up in such areas like sports, businesses and communications. This paper would now try to fully define the meaning of NGO and also go further to answer some questions on how, why and the need for NGOs, before finally addressing the roles they play in the national development and security which is the topic this paper is designed to address. What is an NGO? Let me begin by asking us this question. What does the term NGO stands for or what is the meaning of an NGO? Even though there is no generally or universally restricted definition of NGO, however let us bring in some definitions by some institutions and international bodies in order to explain more the meaning or the message behind the term NGO. To enable us capture the idea behind the NGOs, four of these definitions would suffice; i. The British Library, for example agrees that NGOs has to do with voluntary participation by average citizen in the affairs of his environment or communities. This is so because there is no imposed membership, control by Government or State. They are now often called Private Voluntary Organizations (PVO). ii. The World Bank, defines NGOs as private organizations that pursue basic social services, or undertake community development services. They in whole or in part depend on charitable donations and offer voluntary services. iii. The United Nations, the present name N. G. O was first coined by the U. N in the year 1945. This was mainly to distinguish them from States and Governments. iv. The International Community generally adopts another name for NGO’s, which is â€Å"Civil Society Organizations†. This is generally because they are being formed by the citizen for the good of society and are generally not for profit. NGOs are known to be legitimately engaged in activities that touch on the lives of their communities. These include economic, social, humanitarian, security and philanthropy. They are nevertheless broad in names and activities depending on their objectives, focus and mode of operation. These include associations, societies, forums, foundations, networks, charities, organizations, trusts, centers, clubs, committees, etc. Why Are NGOs Established? Let us try to address the question or give answers to the reasons on why NGOs are established by communities. The belief that not all areas, activities, fields, needs and services of the communities are perfectly and completely offered or addressed by Governments however highly advanced or principled. This makes the establishment of NGOs absolutely necessary, complimentary and very encouraging in the history and developmental need of any nation. It is generally agreed that human capital is another form of economic capital. Therefore, the vast resources and capacities accumulated by the voluntary, non-profit organizations could not be disregarded. The zeal to serve ones community and offer services to the poor and the needy or participate in developmental activities or other humanitarian and relief services are some of the motivating factors that give rise to the establishment of NGOs. Recently, the activities of NGOs are on the rise, they are at the forefront in the fight for good governance, accountability and transparency by public office holders. So many factors and challenges have caused like minded eople to unite and forge common front on some issues of the day ranging from the quest for offering social services to the people, to offering relief, humanitarian and emergency services. So also the issue of globalization, environment and anti war issues has united communities. Between 1945 to 1995, the number of NGOs has increased astronomically. Currently, even in the absence of accurate data of the number of NGOs worldwide, one can safely say that their proliferation is directly associated with the coming of new technology, communication and the Internet. On the average, a new NGOs is created somewhere in the world every day. Generally, it is our opinion that the number of CBO and NGOs in a particular locality, state or nation providing non-profit services in a very healthy development which should not be over looked by any state or government. More recently, there has been growing interest in the activities of NGOs not only in Nigeria but worldwide. How Does NGOs Operate? Worldwide, the activities and contribution of NGOs to societies through their participation and providing inexpensive, value driven and usually completely free services to communities has been acknowledged and is increasingly coming to the lime light. Even though, NGOs operate in different capacities and with numerous objectives, motivation and focus. Generally they work as pressure groups, watchdogs and developmental organizations. The United Nations for example has found it very necessary to deal with NGOs. In fact, the term NGO as earlier explained was coined by the U. N. after the WW II. Since then it has extended the ways and principles of it engagement with the NGOs by expanding and improving the way it works with them. The British and American Governments have also created a variety of regional assemblies and grouping to try to bring more people and communities into ctive participation in democratization and other major campaigns. The International Community uses numerous names to describe NGOs. These names include: Non- partisan organizations, not-for-profit, Watchdogs, Pressure Groups, Voluntary Sector, Complimentary Institutions, Stakeholders, Non State Actors, Bridge Builders, Development Partners, Grassroots Organizati ons, Community Based Organizations, Private Voluntary Organizations, Peoples Organization, Value Driven Organizations, Third Sector of the Economy, etc. The world of NGOs has continued to widen and assume more dimension and relevance today. LEGAL STATUS OF NGOs The right to establish, create or form an NGO is a fundamental human right that belong to the individuals or group of people and are not bestowed on the States or Governments. These rights are derived from the fundamental rights of an individual, group or community to free speech and association that exist in almost all civilized constitutions. However, even though NGOs have right to exist and operate as informal organizations, a crucial part of the enabling environment for NGOs requires them to incorporate and acquire formal or legal personality or status this would in turn protect the principles of such NGOs from personal liability for the affairs of the organization, such as contracts, debts or legal action. In Nigeria, for example, Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) is the body charged with the power to register NGOs that desire to operate in Nigeria. CAC derives its powers from the Companies and Allied Matters Decree No. I part C, which took effect from 2nd January 1990. So also States and Local Governments have departments of Social and Community Development and that of Youth and Sports Ministries overseeing the registration of NGOs. AN IDEAL NGO It is expected that every organization should meet some certain requirements in order to engage in legitimate activities as opposed to criminal and illegitimate groups. An ideal NGO is expected to among other things abide by the following: – †¢ To be registered with relevant authorities at the Local, State or National levels depending on the level of operation. To have a well articulated constitution or articles of association or charter. †¢ To have an executive body, and an open and simple criteria for membership or volunteers. †¢ To have an office, correspondence addresses like; post office box, telephone, email, fax, etc. †¢ To have clear and well-defined mission, vision or aims and objectives. †¢ To engage in programmes a nd activities that helped the community. †¢ To have a clean, transparent and verifiable sources of funds for their activities. †¢ To have a leadership, organogram and well established channel of communication. To have very good rappour with their community, other organizations and relevant authorities. CATEGORIES OF NGOs Even though their activities are sometimes similar and aimed at development, NGOs differ in so many ways and aspects. They can be safely categorized into various groupings. They can be CBOs, FBOs, and they can also be INGOs. The World Bank for example classified NGOs into 3 main groups, they are: – a. Community Based organizations (CBO); these are NGOs that are based or directly in touch with the Local communities and usually set up by the communities themselves, e. g. CODEC, CDF, PAMUHE in Zamfara State. b. State NGOs (SNGO) & National NGOs (NNGO); these organizations as the name implies operate as State or at national level in their countries of origin e. g. GLONIJ, FOMWAN, PEDO in Zamfara State etc c. International (INGOs); there are typically in developed countries and they usually carryout their activities in more than one country e. g. CARE, OXFAM, etc. Some of the other categories also include; d. BINGO; Business Oriented International NGOs. e. RINGO; Religious International NGOs. f. FBNGO; Faith Based NGOs. g. ENGO; Environmental NGOs. . GONGO; Government Operated NGOs. i. QUANGO; Quasi –autonomous NGOs. Further sub-divisions are also possible; Active NGOs; these are the ones that strive to address the root causes of societal problems they stage programmes that even attract the media. They are either advocacy, service or development oriented. In active NGOs; These are the less functional ones that have less or no funding whatsoever b ut attend conferences, seminars and workshops. Brief Case NGOs; These are usually one-man show often described as â€Å"Portfolio Type† or a collection of â€Å"Family Business Groups†. Umbrella Organizations for NGOs exist with names like; Networks; These are groups of NGOs from different areas, states or regions that comes from different backgrounds but working in the same field but not necessary the same focus and mission. e. g Cisnan Coalitions; these are umbrella organizations that consist of different NGOs working in different fields of human endevour. They are of differing focus, objectives and missions but they are united for the betterment of their causes and social welfare. e. g Zacons Who fund NGOs? There are a number of funding sources or bodies working with different NGOs. They may be categorizes in the following; 1. Self- Funding; Registration fees, Dues, Levies, Donations, Investments Returns, etc. 2. Local, State or Federal Governments; Naca, Zamsaca, etc 3. Foreign Governments; Like the U. S (USAID), U. K (DFID), E. U, etc. 4. UN Agencies; UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, UNIFEM, etc 5. International NGOs; Global Fund, Oxfam, AAIN, etc 6. Philanthropies/Foundations; Ford Foundation, Rock feller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, Heinrich Foundation, Melinda Gates Foundation, Packard Foundation, Macarthur Foundation, etc THE ROLE OF NGOs IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT After casting a picture of what NGOs are by showing how they operate and why they are established, we can now safely delve into their contributions national development. NGOs as non state actors, have played and are stilling playing very important and major role in initiating and supporting various Local, National and International developmental activities. To make sense out of this, one may digress a little to show how NGOs are also playing their role internationally. For example concerted campaigns, enormous pressure and actions by States together with NGOs led to the establishment of the International Court of Justice. Globally, NGOs have impacted direct and meaningful involvement in shaping the international agenda at the United Nations and regional levels through remarkable negotiations. NGOs are found in international and regional committees. They also contributed in the MDG and NEEDs programme. They are also engaged as partners in United Nations Agencies such as the UNEP, UNFAO, UNDP, UNCTAP and UNCHR. But since this is outside the scope of this paper there is no need to go further. NOW WHAT IS THE MEANING OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT? To understand the contribution of NGOs to National Development especially in Nigeria, we need to acquaint ourselves with the meaning of the term National Development. Development of any nation is defined by the advanced learners Dictionary as that nation’s process of changing and evolving pattern of becoming larger, stronger, more successful or more advanced. ‘The Roles of Civil Society and Citizen organizations (in national development) are becoming better understood around the world,† says Martin Sime, Chief Executive Officer the Scottish Council of Voluntary Organizations. NGOs has been over the past decade ahead of government on many key issues of our times,† said Mr. Naidoo an Executive social worker. Another separate testimony by Mr. Mario â€Å"Whether we take the issue of land mines, environment, HIV/AIDS, global poverty agenda, gender equity, civil society’s impact is quite significant and remarkable in terms of facing difficult challenges of our time and putting forth solutions that are more bold, more courageous and more innovative than many who are constrained by their political office† says Mario Lubetkin, Director General of the Inter Press Service (IPS). Even though NGOs as oppose to Governments, are well outside decision-making machinery of Governments, they have proved as dependable partners in the formulation of policies and programmes whenever consulted by Governments. Let us now list some areas of contribution by NGOs. 1. NGOs have contributed immensely in monitoring and exposing bad governance, corruption, child trafficking, etc. 2. They have also served as think tanks and resource base for training, capacity, research and advocacy, project planning and execution. 3. Many NGOs have gained the trust of people and Governments, so the Governments machinery has begun to engage and dialogue with them thereby tapping their expertise and skills. NGOs are now no longer considered adversaries but partners in progress. 4. NGOs have had significant progress in raising public awareness on almost any issue that arose. This they do through increased campaigns, sensitization, information collection and data analysis. 5. They have forged ties and engaged in fruitful partnership and networking among themselves. This has boosted cooperation, unity and more developmental services they render to the people. . They have played significant role in shaping the debate for sustainable development. They execute concrete projects and advocate for the formal participation of women in division making. 7. NGOs are contributing immensely in the attainment of environmental justice through protection of social, economic and environmental rights. 8. They have contributed in MDG, NEEDs, Micro credit scheme and poverty alleviation. NGOs in Zamfara State that are affiliated and members of the coalition have contributed to the development of Zamfara States in many ways and at different levels. Currently, NGOs have employed a number of youth both male and female as full time development staff and some on office routine. They can also boost of the largest collection of humanitarian volunteers from communities, civil services and the business sector. NGOs in the state have executed a lot of projects totaling more than 30 millions naira in the past 3 years alone. More then 60 projects in the area of education, health and good governance were executed in Zamfara State. NGOs have exalted themselves in areas of exchange of ideas and information. They have engaged in a number of capacity building workshops and other International Forums. NGOs have attended and represented Zamfara State in a number of seminars, workshops and conferences. In the past few years NGOs in Zamfara can boost of accomplishing the following as their own contribution to state and national development; 1. Enhancing Girls Basic Education in Communities LGAs in Zamfara State. 2. Peer Education, Kasaurara II Project in 12 Northern States. 3. Self help Community Development Projects, 4. Construction of Culverts and Drainages, 5. Participation in Environmental Sanitation Programme. 6. Quiz competition on Radio and T. V among Youth in the State. 7. Sensitization and Awareness on the Annual Hajj exercise. 8. Sensitization workshops on Reproductive Health issues. 9. Organizing of Leadership training courses. 10. Construction of Community Primary School in Tudun Wada, 11. Renovation of Boreholes. 12. Quarterly Training of Trainers Programme on HIV/AIDS. 13. Publication of Books and Journals for Adult and Children 14. Monitoring of Census and Election. 15. Youth and Women Skills training in Zamfara 16. Provision of Care and Support for PLHVA 17. Provision of Emergency and First Aid services. 18. Research Projects on Child Begging and offering solution 19. Sensitization workshop on HIV to opinion leaders. 20. Public Enlightenment of Women on current issues 21. Provision of Public Pumps at U/Zabarma, Gusau 22. Organization of Inter-Secondary Schools Debate 23. Participation in Tree Planting Campaign. 24. Staging of Conflict mitigation workshops 25. Provision of HIV Resource Centre. 26. Sensitization on Affirmative Action for Women 27. Provision of Micro Credit to Women 28. Budget Tracking Workshops 29. Launching of VCT centers and Hotlines in the State In Zamfara State NGOs can be found in different communities set up to work at Local, State and National Levels. This is in recognition of the role they can play in giving useful advises, constructive criticism and sound policy decisions. WHAT ARE THE ROLES PLAYED BY NGOs IN NATIONAL SECURITY Again let us address the term and notion of security and national security before indicating the role the NGOs play in ensuring national Security. In a summary National Security as defined by Wikipedia, the internet encyclopedia refers to the public policy of ensuring the survival and integrity of the nation state through the use of economic, social and military power and the exercise of diplomacy in both peace and war time. The strategy used or employed by the states to protect national security is numerous. They include the use of diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats; marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation of the enemy. Others measures include the use of intelligence and network of agents to depend, defeat or avoid threats and espionage and protect classified information. However, national security does entirely and solely depend on the military power or population of a nation but the social well being of the people of a nation. The components that make up national security include the following: – i. Food security ii. Economic security iii. Political security iv. Social security As indicated above, the notion of national security does not only mean the enforcement of laws and security operations. National security is a collective and relative name. It does not only means enforcement of fear or restoration of Security, but the elimination of all sources of insecurity, which must include the provision of all of the above components. The NGOs helped in no small measure in the maintenance of each of the three mentioned security components. Let us try and list them in this order; i. Food Security: NGO’s most visible role and contribution is in the fight against hunger, unemployment and poverty. They perform so well in these areas by demanding for good policies by governments on the issues of tackling poverty. They help in getting food to the hungry and the needy through humanitarian services, philanthropy, charity and endowments. â€Å"A hungry man they say is indeed an angry man and conversely a source of insecurity†. ii. Economic Security: Through the pursuance of good economic policies by governments the NGOs press for economic reforms and better economic measure to ensure a secure economy that buttress businesses and other economic activities. NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for accountability, transparency and equity by public and private office holders. iii. Political Security: In the public and leadership arena, NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for good governance, democracy and human development. NGOs engage leaders and public office holders by ensuring public based legislation, participation and equal opportunities are provided. v. Social Security: This is one of the most and very important components of national security. Ensuring social cohesion, integration, participation, efficient and adequate distribution of social services and amenities. NGOs also help in the fight for equal opportunities and employment that are integral to their activities not only nationally but also globally. On the health sector the NGOs has reacted to HIV/AIDs, Malaria and Tuberculosis with unprecedented attention and dispatch it deserves. NGOs IN WAR AND PEACE As generally believed, peace is not only the absence of war but a state of maximum security free from all forms of fear. Conversely, there is no security without peace. NGOs offer their services in peacetime and also offer humanitarian services in events of emergencies such as epidemics, earthquakes and other natural or man made disasters. NGOs contribute in no small measure in times of peace and security. This becomes evidently clear in the sense that NGOs themselves help in bridging gaps, resolution of conflicts and public enlightenment on contentious issues. Even though there some NGOs whose formation and activities draws some security concerns, one may hasten to say that those NGOs only strive as a result of inadequate security and failure of governments to provide checks and balances which fuels their existence and increase their activities. These â€Å"NGOs† may include extreme pressure groups, armed freedom fighters, criminal gangs, rebels, cultist, syndicates, cartels, ethnic and racial movements, nationalist fighters, etc. Therefore these organizations should be carefully separated from developmental and progressive NGOs. Even though the above voluntary and community organizations may be initially established or formed by a law abiding community and legally, but later their activities may draw some special concerns, fears and security threats. Generally a good NGO should contribute and argument the effort of their communities, localities, states and nation in their chosen areas of operations. NGOs IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND SECURITY There are numerous NGOs that are found in uniform or out of uniform that help security services in the maintenance of law and order. They participate in confronting emergencies by providing assistants and First Aid support. . g. Red Cross, Red Crescent, Man ‘O’ War Bay, Civil Defense, Volunteer Forces, Scouts, Girls Guide, Boys Brigades, etc. CONCLUSION: One painful fact still remains that security networks and by extension their Governments have not yet recognized and appreciated the huge reserve of knowledge, capacity and resources resident within the voluntary sector that can contribute to their policies and programmes towards National development. On their part, some NGOs underestimated their relevance and the role they can play in National Development and Security through engaging Governments at all levels on all issues. Criticisms of NGOs from some quarters that are either not direct recipient of their services or are ignorant of the role they are playing in national development also abound. They are being called all sorts of names that include; they are self appointed, undemocratic, answer to no constituency, encroaches on National and International laws, long arm of their sponsoring partners, resembles multinationals, chase disasters, proponents of western values, aggressive organizations, extremist, etc. Whatever the criticism, it is evidently clear that nationally and Internationally, political and economic developments has risen with the rise and rise of NGOs, Civil Organizations has become a vital link and force for social change. They put people first before profit; they put food first before reserve or politicking. The bottom line is that, the work of NGOs which is the provision of socio-economic needs of the people as well as caring for their well being are also the key elements in any development and security effort of any nation. The security of people must starts from meeting their human needs. This implies that social amenities such as shelter, education, health and other infrastructural materials and the elimination of economic inequality are part of security. All of the above cannot be secured unless and until we have good governance, democracy, peace, security and sustainable national development. Fortunately, these are exactly what the NGOs are fighting for and were known for globally. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. The Author of the paper holds HND in Printing Technology from Kaduna Polytechnic in 1989. He worked in the private sector and was one time Managing Director Nasiha Professional Printers, Sokoto and Zamfara States. He was also the Press Manager, Mazan – Fara Printing Press, Gusau. He worked in the public sector and was the Chief Superintendent of Press, Survey Division, Ministry of Lands and Survey, Zamfara State. He also served NGOs in different capacities: Executive Member, Muslim Students Society, Kaduna Polytechnic Branch, Secretary General, Joint Youth Islamic Organizations, Zamfara State. Currently he is the Secretary General, Global Network for Islamic Justice, Zamfara State, Executive Director, Partnership for Muslim Health, Zamfara State, Chairman, Coalition of Non-Governmental Organizations, Zamfara State, President, Association of Nigeria Authors, Zamfara State Chapter. He has attended so many seminars and conferences both at national and international levels. The Author is currently employed with the Zamfara State Zakat and Endowment Board, in the position of Director Zakat Collection. SOME ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS USED AAN-Action Aid Nigeria CSACEFA-Civil Society Action Coalition on Education for All. CISHNAN-Civil Society Network on HIV/AIDS. DFID-Department for International Development. SFH-Society for Family Health SACA-State Action Committee on Aids USAID-United State Agency for International Development CODEC-Community Development Centre NACA-National Action Committee on Aids CISCOPE-Civil Society Action Coalition on Poverty Eradication GLONIJ-Global Network For Islamic Justice UNDP-United Nations Development Programme NEEDS-National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy IDASA-Institute of Democracy South Africa. ZASCON-Zamfara State Coalition of NGO’s AAIN-Action Aid International SEEDS-State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy TMG-Transition Monitoring Group PLWHA-People Living with HIV/AIDS CARE-Cooperative Assistant for Relief Everywhere REFERENCE The rise and rise of NGOs – Peter Hall-Jones, Public Services International, May, 2006. NGOs the self appointed altruist – Sam Vakain, Ph. D – 2005 The role of Egypt C. S. O in Development & Reform – USEF Panel Discussion Notes, 2004. Categorizing NGOs; – World Bank Criteria. Towards an enabling legal environment for CSO – Sixteenth Annual John Hopkins International Fellows in Philanthropy Conference, Nairobi, Kenya. NGOs – Wikipeadia; the free encyclopedia. C. S. O & Democratic oversight of the security sector – Macina Caparini, DCAF, International Security Forum Zurich, 2002.

Briefly Explain the Idealist Approach to International Relations

Topic: Briefly explain the Idealist approach to International Relations. To get an insight of what realism and liberalism is all about four (4) questions must be asked and answered and before asking- What is Liberalism/Idealism? Those questions are: what is a theory? Why theories are necessary? What is hypothesis? And how many types of theories are there? All these questions will give basic knowledge about the three theories of international relations; but the topic sets a limit to how many theories to cover and that theory is liberalism/idealism. What is a theory? According to gavilan, a theory simplifies reality.It is a perspective which tells you where to look. A statement of cause and effect/outcome- what correlates? Why does this regularity occur? The cause and effect underlined above implies the independent or explanatory variable and dependent variable respectively. Why are theories necessary? (1) Too much information available to be able to process it without guidance about w hat is relevant or irrelevant. (2) No rational action without hypothesis about cause and effect. What is hypothesis? Every theory brings out hypothesis. A hypothesis is a testable implication of a theory. Evidence supports a theory but does not prove it.How many types of theories are there? There are three major theories; these theories are: Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism. Constructivism is divided into Marxism and Post- modernism and Post- structuralism. After knowing all these, the question- what is idealism/liberalism? Can be asked, but, due to the relation of liberalism/idealism with reciprocity principle the definition of collective goods problem should be stated. Collective good problem is how a group of nations serve the/its group interest or collective interest by doing so members to forfeit their individual interest.In other words, it is the problem of shared interest versus competing interest. It solves the problem of how to provide something that benefits every m ember regardless of what each member contribute. Idealism/liberalism: According to Goldstein et al, â€Å"like any other international relation theory has no general definition, but it sees the rules of IR as gradually evolving through time and becoming more passive- such advancement results chiefly from the gradual build up of international organizations and mutual cooperation (reciprocity) and secondarily from change in norms and public opinion (identity). The definition in the continuing note is in accord to gavilan â€Å"According to Kegley and Wittkopt (2006: pg28), ‘liberalism is known as a paradigm anticipated on hope that the appliance of reason and universal principles to international relations can lead to a more organizes, impartial, and cooperative world, and that international anarchy [lack of world government] ad war can be supervised by institutional reforms that empower international organizations and laws’† Liberal theories of IR try to explain how peace and cooperation are possible.It gives instances of how realism offers mostly the principle of dominance to solve the collective goods problems of IR, while it (idealism) draws its solution mostly on the reciprocity and identity principle. Assumptions of Liberalism/Idealism According to jefferyfields (n. d) [Online], the following are assumptions of idealism. 1. â€Å"Human nature is effectively good or humane: People are capable of mutual aid and collaboration through reason and ethically inspired education. † Jefferyfields (n. d) [Online] 2. â€Å"The fundamental human concern for others’ welfare makes progress possible. jefferyfields (n. d) [Online] 3. â€Å"Bad human behaviour, such as violence, is the product not of flawed people but of evil institutions that encourage people to act selfishly and to harm others. † jefferyfields (n. d) [Online] 4. â€Å"War and international anarchy are not inevitable and war’s frequency can be reduced by s trengthening the institutional arrangements that encourage its disappearance. † jefferyfields (n. d) [Online] 5. â€Å"War is a global problem requiring collective or multilateral, rather than national, efforts to control it. jefferyfields (n. d) [Online] 6. â€Å"Reforms must be inspired by a compassionate ethical concern for the welfare and security of all people, and this humanitarian motive requires the inclusion of morality in statecraft. † jefferyfields (n. d) [Online] 7. â€Å"International society must reorganize itself in order to eliminate the institutions that make war likely, and states must reform their political systems so that self-determination and democratic governance within states can help pacify relations among states. † jefferyfields (n. d) [Online]Prisoners Dilemma Giving an example of two prisoners who are incarcerated; noting that they are meeting for the first time- the options given to them would either be to turn on each other or coope rate with each other. The two prisoners are likely to turn on each other or not cooperate with each other because of the condition of their meeting. The given example displays the nature of countries in the international system when approached with similar problem or decision. The self protecting nature of states renders cooperation impractical.This is in line with the prisoners who decline to cooperate with one another because they either do not trust one another or want to protect their interest. Conclusion In conclusion, the international relation theory called liberalism is an argument against the realist view. According to Goldstein et al (2012 pg86)A, if dominance solution is offered mostly by the realist or realism to solve the collective goods problems of I. R. , alternative theories draw mostly on the reciprocity and identity principles. These theories are more optimistic than realism about the prospect of peace.Goldstein et al (2012 pg86)B said, â€Å"realist see the law of power politics as relatively timeless and unchanging, while liberal theorists view I. R. rules as gradually evolving through time and becoming more peaceful- such advancement results chiefly from the gradual build up of international organizations and mutual cooperation (reciprocity) and secondarily from change in norms and public opinion (identity). Liberal theory among others holds that we are not doomed to a country of recurring war but can achieve a more peaceful world. † In addition, in accord with Goldstein et al (2012 pg86) liberal theory eviews domestic politics and foreign policy making, unlike realism, which places importance on domestic and individual levels of analysis in explaining state behaviour. All this display the peaceful nature/motive of the liberal theorist. BIBLOGRAPHY Goldstein, S. J. Pevehouse, J. C. (2012) International Relations (Tenth Edition) United States: Pearson. http://hhh. gavilan. edu/mturetzky/pols4/TheoreticalPerspectivesLiberalismRealism . htm http://jeffreyfields. net/427/Site/Blog/3C90C230-B47B-4894-8E8E-F4C5078BDD88_files/Rourke-Realism,%20Liberalism,%20Constructivism. pdf http://www. princeton. edu/~amoravcs/library/preferences. pdf

Mirror by Sylvia Plath Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mirror by Sylvia Plath - Essay Example On its surface, Plath’s poem seems to be simply about a mirror and the woman who continues to look into it day after day. The story of the mirror is told from the perspective of the mirror itself as it stands nonjudgmental in the corner of a room and looking endlessly at the far wall, which is â€Å"pink, with speckles† (7). The mirror presents itself as nonjudgmental, but there are hints throughout the poem that it does judge those who look into it by the way in which they judge themselves. The second stanza of the poem allows the mirror to transform itself into a lake where (presumably) the same woman peeks in to search her reflection. In this stanza, time speeds up, first taking on human dimensions and then speeding into â€Å"each morning† (16) and finally counting down â€Å"day after day† (18) as the young girl becomes an old woman. The poem seems to capture the sense of time as it is experienced in a lifetime. In childhood, time is meaningless, it stands still and goes nowhere, like the mirror placidly sitting in the room and contemplating the pink wall. â€Å"I have looked at it so long / I think it is a part of my heart† (7-8) just like the child is a child for all of its experience and often thinks it will remain so. However, the wall, like childhood, â€Å"flickers. / Faces and darkness separate us over and over† (8-9) as the child begins to grow into a young woman. The second stanza makes this point much clearer as the young woman continues to look into the mirror for signs of the lost child and finds instead evidence of the aging woman. â€Å"She rewards me with tears and an agitation of hands† (13) when she looks for a fairer reflection such as what is seen by the romantic light of candles or the moon, yet she cannot deny the call of the reflection as she returns every day. Through this behavior, the mirror sees that she has â€Å"drowned a young girl, and in me an old woman This progression is very much like the passage of time in William

E85 gas vs. regular gas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

E85 gas vs. regular gas - Essay Example Today, E85 is produced from pole to pole and has a strategic role in energy policies of many countries (Kraemer, 2006, p. 128). This paper is to give a general overview of all pros and cons of ethanol use in America specifically. According to the Energy Policy Act of 2005, U.S. fuel suppliers, in the period of 2006-2012, have to increase the amount of added into fuel ethanol from 15 to 28 billion liters. Nowadays, for comparison, the United States consumes annually about 545 billion liters of regular gasoline. However, as a result of the Congress legislative initiatives, more than two trillion miles have been on traveled over, in last 25 years, on fuel mixed with ethanol. Most automobile companies increase production of flexible-fuel vehicles. As a consequence, most modern cars have automated fuel control systems allowing regulating air - fuel ratio sufficiently enough for simultaneous use of E85 and regular gasoline. For example, Ford, a leader in production of environmentally frien dly vehicles, has a range of Flexible Fuel - vehicles that run on E85, pure gasoline, pure ethanol E100 or any mixture of gasoline and ethanol (Focus, C-MAX, Mondeo, Galaxy, S-MAX, F-150, Ford Sedans Crown Victoria, Mercury Grand Marquis, Lincoln Town Car, Escape Hybrid E85) (Byrge & Kliesen, 2008, p. 5). Global interest in alternative (renewable) fuels was imposed, first of all, by different national environmental programs. It is known that the use of renewable fuels in a given region can reduce: †¢ Greenhouse gas emission - by 14 – 19% (9, 5 million tons of Ð ¡ÃÅ¾2 in 2008); †¢ Consumption of petroleum products - by 73 - 75 %; †¢ Use of fossil fuels - by 13 - 35 %. In addition to the environmental aspect, use of ethanol - gasoline mixes (E85) has the following advantages compared to regular gasoline: higher octane number, which means lower wear and increased life of a car engine; reduced vehicles’ service charges; lower cost of E85 at retail; product ion of ethanol supports national economy (agriculture mainly, processing industry and transportation inter alia) (Dale & Pimentel, 2008, p .22). But it’s totally wrong to consider that the use of ethanol has only advantages. Indeed, ethanol allows reducing pollution to some extent, since less carbon monoxide (CO) is emitted during its use. But, because of the high Reid Vapor Pressure, acetaldehyde and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are released, which produce more smog (Cunningham, 2007, p. 280). Companies, that manufacture and operate pipe lines, refuse to add pure 100% ethanol or ethanol containing fuels into their pines because of corrosion. So, starting from 2006, there is a constant shortage of rail-tanks for ethanol transportation. More and more fossil fuels (such as diesel and gasolin

Individual Report on Fashion and Leather Goods Essay

Individual Report on Fashion and Leather Goods - Essay Example The paper "Individual Report on Fashion and Leather Goods" concerns leather goods and fashion. For instance, City Fringe, an area located in the inner part of London comprised of about 189 fashion business firms. Among these almost every firm was recorded to be stagnant or in the struggling stage. In other words, the fashion business firms were somewhat unable to cope with the industry changes resulting in inefficiency in terms of productivity, pro-activeness, and competency. Due to this reason, a better effective investment plan was adapted by the market players in order to achieve their desired goal and reward a feasible amount of sustainability to the business. This paper therefore shall concentrate on the significance of micro and macro economic environment of the UK, related to the fashion market. It is basically due to the reason that fashion market trends categorised as luxury goods are highly depended on the issue of customer affordability and preferences. Hence, the influenc es of fluctuations arise in the micro and the macro environment of a particular business firm, i.e., LVMH. LVMH Moà «t Hennessy Louis Vuitton SA was incorporated in 1987 by merging two leading fashion business groups i.e., the Louis Vuitton and Moet-Hennessy. The group is among the world’s leading groups to trade luxury goods such as perfumes, cosmetics, wine and even designer fashion and leather goods. The company division related to the manufacturing and marketing of designer made fashion and leather goods.

Gender Representation of Children's Television cartoon Essay

Gender Representation of Children's Television cartoon - Essay Example from choices of clothes to toys etc. This prejudice also alters the behavior of parents for instance, for girls it can be seen that they are treated delicately while boys are usually treated discourteously. Due to the behaviors of families towards labeling children as boys and girls, within the 18 months of their birth, infants begin to learn the dissimilarities between two genders by themselves. In this way, between 18 to 20 months, the gender identity begins to be constructed. The idea of gender differences becomes clear in the minds of children by the age of two. â€Å"Although they have not fabricated a view of their own gender, they can differentiate females and males and learn to divide the world between women and men. They define behaviors of woman and man (stereotypes about sexuality)†. For instance, in a study which was conducted with the children below age of 2, children acknowledged that boys like to play with cars while girls like to play with dolls and boys like t o push whereas girls like to cry. They define activities of adults as belonging to male and female. They also define colors according to gender. At this age, children are able to determine their own gender correctly and they understand that gender is a permanent characteristic. In later years, children’s communication with friends and in their schools also leads them to construct biased attitudes towards the two genders. One of the most vital contributing factors in internalizing gender stereotypes in children is Media. Katz and Boswell (1986) identified that among children, media and peers are more effective than parents in developing gender identification. For children, many television programs are integrated with gender discrimination intensively.... For children, many television programs are integrated with gender discrimination intensively. In TV programs, it can be clearly seen that one of the two genders is posed as dominant while others are insignificant characters. A large number of programs reveal male as more dominant and powerful character as compared to female character. Many of the shows that are being shown on TV are ordinary lives of ordinary people reflected on the screen. According to Mutlu, (1999) â€Å"Shortly, television is the extension of people's common, ordinary feelings and interests on screen† (Mutlu, 1999). As Williams states, â€Å"most of the television programs are extensions of daily talk† (Williams, 1992). Therefore, it is possible that all the contents of TV programs are actually society’s beliefs, ideas and traditions that are broadcasted on TV. It is really important for parents to know what their children are watching. Television exposes children to those things from which pa rents are striving to protect the m especially drug abuse, violence etc. Along with the actual television programs, children also get influenced by what they see in advertisements during commercial breaks. There are many negative aspects of watching too much TV. Watching TV too much can cause bedtime resistance and anxiety around sleep. It is also followed by shortened duration of sleep. Another study suggested that there is a strong relationship between watching too much TV and aggressive behavior of children. Children who spend significant amount of time in watching TV during early adulthood and adolescence are more likely to act aggressively against others. Watching too much TV also causes the problem of overweight and inactiveness among children. In TV programs, gender discrimination is also actually a

Summary for case study ( an engineering logistic (software) solution ) Essay

Summary for case study ( an engineering logistic (software) solution ) - Essay Example Customer service being vital ingredient of logistics, the quality, time, speed, punctuality and reliability of delivery become crucial components. The company utilizes ECOSELL using Extended Enterprises for enhanced logistic planning outcome. Firm’s physical distribution and logistics management relies on capillary network of points of sale throughout the country where inventory is mostly brought by fleet of trucks but sometimes also using couriers or collected by point of sale. The kitchens are delivered to point of sale in three ways: 17 dedicated trucks are used for Italy and 13 trucks delivery kitchen abroad, on a once in a week basis; urgent deliveries are made through third party carrier firms; and sometimes, customers collect it directly from the production plant. To ensure smooth flow of logistics, the company uses percentage of cumulative volumes against total deliveries by dividing regions into three groups: group 1 absorbs 60% of total volume of products and 57% of deliveries; group 2 absorbs 30% of products’ volume and 33% of total deliveries; and third group absorbs lowest volume and least number of deliveries. Orders sent by point of sales are segregated by regions and arranged by delivery dates to be delivered by trucks such that trucks are optimally used. Assemble to Order or ATO, using forecasts for parts and sub-assemblies to fill the truck which are later assembled to meet the demands. While ATO has many advantages, disadvantages like higher lead times, non-flexible manufacturing system and limited productive capacity of plants become major drawbacks. Consequently, firm uses its other brands to fill the trucks and save cost. Thus the redesigned system using EE are introduced which become highly effective mechanism to exploit the logistics and supply system in the meta value chain through dynamic assignment of orders. ECOSELL using EE applies superimposition of geographical

Environmental Impact Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Environmental Impact Analysis - Assignment Example It also leads to social problems that are interconnected to the perception of the people who reside in the area where such plants are situated. Nuclear power initiates from fission reaction in which the uranium atoms split into smaller constituents. The energy that is released during this fission reaction is used to produce steam. This steam is then further used in turbines to produce electricity. This method of electricity generation in accumulation is responsible to generate 20 percent of the electricity that is produced within the United States of America. There are more than hundred nuclear power plants currently in the United States of America that are producing this form of energy. (U.S. Energy Information Administration) Uranium is a radioactive metal that is cannot be regenerated by any humanly process. There are specific methods that are used to extract Uranium like the conventional mining technique or by leaching of chemicals. As soon as uranium has been extracted it is the n sent to the uranium processing plants so that they are converted in fuel that can be consumed for various purposes. This fuel is then carried to the nuclear plants for further work. (uranium reserves estimate, EIA) Furthermore when the fuel reaches the plant it is sent to the nuclear reactor, reactions occurs when the neutrons present in uranium undergo collisions that generates heat and produces a chain reaction. Through this process heat is obtained which produces steam to generate electricity in turbines. The environmental impacts of such reactions are mentioned as follows: Despite the fact that the government and other authorities in concern have formulated strict laws to protect the health of the people as well as to secure the environment irrespective of that there are still a vast range of the environmental problems and impacts that are linked to the generation of electricity through this medium. In my paper I would be discussing the various ways through which this form of energy is impacting us. Heat rejection is one of the major concerns that our environment is facing. In the same way we experience with the thermal generated power plants which produce electricity through fossils etc. nuclear power plants also need some way through which they can radiate heat energy which is part of their condensing system. (Bulletin of the atomic scientists, 1946, pg 17)The quantity of the heat that is generated from the various parts of the generating plant differ but an estimate states that about 60-70% of heat energy is released from the plant when a nuclear fuel is ejected.It is usually seen that some of the plant that uses a cooling towers whereas some plants have created an artificial lake or a naturally formed body of water. (Hoffelner, 2013, pg 309) Apart from that it is greatly affecting the marine life that are a part of the environment in which the heat is given out. Another adverse effect that the heat causes in the water is the changing of rate at which the rivers flow also the anomalies present in the water of the sea. A research that was done shows that the apparent rise that occurs in the sea level is almost 3mm/year in the Northeast coast of United States of America. (Kopytko, 2011, pg 318-333) These nuclear power generation plants do not produce normal radiation like carbon , sulphur dioxide or various other gases present in the environment, instead of that these plants radiate emissions which contain uranium which is far more harmful and has

Fair trade- how good is fair trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Fair trade- how good is fair trade - Essay Example only do they feel penalised for having saved, they also pay a premium for being capable of meeting their own costs, and allow local authorities to carry on paying less than the full cost! Looking for a care home is not easy. People are often doing so under time pressures and in the wake of huge emotional upset. So they need as much information as possible, not least about how much it will cost. The report recommends setting up a one-stop shop specialising in care home information, and this, along with the recommendation that regulations should be amended to make clearer price information a requirement on homes, could make a big difference for many vulnerable people. Those who are meeting their own fees will then see that the home they are considering charges self-funders more than those who are placed by local authorities. And families searching for a home for someone who qualifies for local authority support will also be able to see that there are few - if any - homes in the locality that are prepared to take publicly-funded residents without recourse to the family 'topping-up'. The need for a 'third party top-up' often means that the price the local authority has se t is insufficient to enable the home to operate. So this move towards greater transparency will go some way towards creating 'fair trade in care' and may, for some homes, make the difference between carrying on in business or closing, making existing residents homeless and reducing choices available to future generations. I am optimistic about the scope for change and improvement. But I should not get too carried away, as there is evidence that a very large number of people have either no contract, or one containing unfair terms. And this is despite an earlier study (OFT 1998) identifying contractual...Every one of us has probably seen reports or heard something about demonstrations against globalisation when international organizations like the WTO meet. One example was the G8 meeting in July 2001. So we have to ask us the question why there are some people who protest against globalisation and also against the free trade the WTO stands for. The main complain and concern of these groups is unfairness. They say free trade is unfair, the low wages are unfair, the poor working conditions of foreign workers, the environmental standards in less developed countries, the high profits of multinational corporations, the inequality in incomes around the world, everything is unfair. If these reproofs are true i t would mean that also free trade and globalisation is unfair. However the people of international institutions and multinational corporations who are in favour of free trade and globalisation also use the term fairness in their arguments. If a multinational company pays low wages in less developed countries, they can claim that the wages are still fair set because they are above the legal minimum wage standards and that the workers would not get a better opportunity in a company of their country or their government. The WTO and other international organisations consider free trade even as help because it will promote economic growth, which in turn will raise the living standards throughout the whole world and reduce also the income inequality in the future.

Women’s Liberation Movements of the 1960’s Essay Example for Free

Women’s Liberation Movements of the 1960’s Essay I guess if I had to choose a specific event it would be the women’s liberation movement, from the beginning of the 1960’s women were portrayed as serving the men, responsible for housekeeping and day to day child rearing and finally how women were best measured by their beauty, charm, and sexual restraint and men by their accomplishments, power, and sexual prowess (Farber, D. p. 241). What kind of a life would we as women have today if we didn’t have the women who spoke up for us in the 60’s, we would be bare foot and pregant taking care of a family day to day, there’s no wonder why many women had nervous breakdowns the same thing over and over daily, that’s not for me. I thank the women who stood up and spoke up our struggle for equality which had been going on since the late 1840’s and 1960’s. If it weren’t for the Women’s Liberation Group, where would we be right now probably still doing what we were meant to do by men’s portrayal of us, at home taking care of the house- keeping, children and of course them too. We would not have voting rights, opportunities to work and be equal to what men can do, we were told that we should take our place and to â€Å"embrace our natural roles as family nurturers and housewives† (Farber, D. p. 243.) At this point, I would not have been able to continue my education, pursue a career outside the home I really feel lucky to have had the opportunity that we women have now, we are able to vote, we can speak up and say no more sexual harassment in the work place, ask for more pay be equal to a man’s salary range. Women can now become doctors, lawyers, elections, and professors we can choose our own path and have control over our minds, body and soul. If we choose to have a career or run a household then that is our choice. It took a lot of marching and protests to get to where we are right now. Even in during World War II we were able to run a house and work to provide for our family. National Organization for Women in October of 1966 about 300 women and men held the founding conference of NOW. Betty Friedan was elected president. National Organization for Women’s board of directors was narrowly drawn from the academic world the government, and other well-connected elites. With no mass movement yet to draw on, National Organization for Women’s leaders aimed to work as political insiders, lobbying the executive branch to fully implement existing statures which outlawed sex discrimination. But NOW was not formulated to be just another inside-the Washington- beltway lobbying group. While their immediate aims were simply to force full compliance with the law, their larger goals were, in the context of the mid-1960’s a powerful challenge to the status quo: We reject the current assumpti ons that a man must carry the sole burden of supporting himself, his wife and family†¦or that marriage, home and family are primarily a woman’s world and responsibility-hers to dominate-his to support. We believe that true partnership between sexes demands a different concept of marriage, an equitable sharing of the responsibilities of home and of the economic burdens of their support. While women were trying to figure out why they felt â€Å"trapped† many middle class women especially the well-educated, were not satisfied with their lives, many sought help from therapist seeking solutions to their discontent. Many women had been dosed with tranquilizers some got better and learned to accept their prescribed gender roles many continued discontent and continued to search for answers. By the end of the decade many women would turn to the women’s movement for that answer. The Women’s Liberation Movement (WLM) was born in the US among students radicalized by the mass black civil rights movement and opposition to the Vietnam War. In Britain the WLM developed from the struggles of women workers for equal pay. The two movements had different characteristics but both w ere rooted in the effect of the long post war economic boom. This had pulled increasing numbers of women into the workforce and into further education. For example between 1960 and 1965 there was a 57 percent increase in women being awarded degrees in the US (the same figure for men rose by 25 percent). Suddenly a whole generation of women had new expectations. The universities of the US became centers’ of struggle and debate. By 1967 thousands of women had been on marches and protests. They had fought for black civil rights, opposed the war in Vietnam and challenged the state. Yet they faced sexism in their own political organizations and felt sidelined and trivialized by the mainly male leadership. It seems shocking that such brilliant radical movements did not take women’s rights seriously. But when the movements exploded in the 1960s they did so in a vacuum. The socialist tradition had been decimated by the witch-hunts of McCarthyism. There was no Labor type party or revolutionary left to speak of. The shadow cast by the experience of Stalinism made many feel that socialism had nothing to do with liberation. Women activists began to organize their own workshops, write papers and talk about their oppression. The movement in the US was dominated by the idea that women had to organize separately. Meetings often involved women talking about their personal lives – a process described as â€Å"consciousness rising†. Yet the world had changed. For the first time women could control their fertility. Millions of women were gaining a level of economic independence that gave them new choices. Imagine the life of a woman before the 1960s. Her life had been difficult– denied basic rights, trapped in the home her entire life and discriminated against in the workplace. Then, the 1960s came along with it, the thought that women could have a say in their government, that they could perhaps leave the home without feeling guilty about leaving their children alone, and that they could receive a job and earn wages like men. The women’s liberation movement of the 1960s helped all these changes to come about through its scores of policies and radical ways of thinking. In fact, to illustrate some of these radical ways of thinking, some extremist women made a â€Å"Freedom Trash Can† and filled it with representations of women trapped in the home. They threw objects like heels, bras, girdles, hair curlers, and magazines like Cosmo, Playboy and Ladies’ Home Journal in it. The women who put the Trash Can together planned to set it on fire, but decided not to do so because burning of the contents prohibited a city law (Echols 150). Nevertheless, given the numerous obstacles put in place to stop women from changing their status in society, the women’s movement of the 1960s made significant changes for women in regards to basic rights, in the home and in the workplace for the better. Since denied basic rights in most aspects of society, from political rights to reproductive rights, women in the United States fought vigorously for equality. For example, women fought for their rights not to symbolize â€Å"beauty objects† or â€Å"sex objects.† In 1968, 100 women protested the Miss America Beauty Pageant because it promoted â€Å"physical attractiveness and charm as the primary measures of a woman’s worth,† especially the swimsuit portion of the contest (Echols 149). Also, according to Estelle Carol, the founder of the Chicago Women’s Liberation Union, women began to get over this idea in the 1960s, but many women still felt Overly obsessed with [their] body shapes and were often prisoners of the fantasies [they] got from TV and magazine advertising. But [they] were learning to question these things and even some of the so-called ‘supermodels’ spoke out bravely about the need to get past this ridiculous ‘beautyà ¢â‚¬â„¢ thing. (Interview). Again, thanks to the women activist, we would not be sitting here today if we as women didn’t stand together and fight for our rights. I would not be taking my classes on-line have the job that I have now I was very young when I got married back then that’s how we were raised at least by my families morals, I didn’t graduate even though my expectations of myself was to graduate go to college and become an attorney instead I started to raise a family and had a husband who basically was raised to be the dominate person in the relationship. I did work outside the home and enjoyed working I became this woman that wanted more out of life and started looking at how a lot of famous women became leaders so I decided to be more aggressive and stood up for myself, at the age of 25 I became a Collections Manager for an attorney who worked on collecting bad debt for a Medical Hospital, it was a great opportunity for me. I don’t think that I would have had that opportunity if the women’s liberation movement would not have had existed how many women would be lost in translation not knowing where to go for help or how it would be for us in today’s society, where would we be at right now? Would we be able to make decisions that affect our own lives and our families or would we still be depending on our partners to make all of the decisions for the family. We are very lucky to have what we have now, freedom to express, freedom to vote, freedom to work and most of all make our own decisions whether to have or not to have children, and get married if we want. References Farber, D. R., Foner, E. (1994). The age of great dreams, America in the 1960s. (First edition). New York: Hill Wang Retrieved March 6, 2012. http://womensphere.wordpress.com/2008/03/24/the-rising-womens-liberation-movement-in-the-radical-1960s/ Retrieved March 6, 2012 http://www.uic.edu/orgs/cwluherstory/_notes/GrrlSmarts/sawhney.html Retrieved March 6, 2012

The Problems And Issues Of White Collar Crime Criminology Essay

The Problems And Issues Of White Collar Crime Criminology Essay When one ponders on the notion of white-collar and corporate crimes, usually images of massive company takeovers via blackmail and scheming lawyers, for example, spring to mind. Normally, one does not think how this form of crime can in any way relate to street crime in terms of public disturbance. However, white-collar crime can have direct and indirect consequences towards a single person, part of a society and can even span internationally. White-collar crime kept relatively low profile however, and thus it is difficult to pinpoint unhappiness it can cause as surveys focus more on the statistics of regular crime. It is certain that white-collar crime will cause direct and indirect victimization but recognition is needed in identifying its offences; for instance, corruption has a more scattered effect on the population whereas other white-collar offences can have a direct consequence on certain employees. Most offences are gradual and take time to be noticed, environmental crime for example. They lack the instant effect that a burglary or a murder can cause, particularly when it comes to the publics attention. Instead, they affect institutions or commerce where most of the on goings is kept clear from public knowledge. Where there is no direct contact to the victim with no known motive or cause, there is less interest to be generated. Some offences are vague to whom exactly they harm and to whom they benefit. Friedrichs (1996) gives an example that there may be a public advantage in cost savings that results from governmental corruption where companies sell at a lower price to competitors. Eve n counterfeit goods can be seen as beneficial as consumers have a chance to afford designer products which in turn, creates jobs in the counterfeit companys workforce. Of course, the counter argument to this is that the sub-quality goods can be harmful to the public and that employment in genuine companies is in jeopardy (Croall, 1998). And so, much of white-collar victimization is not quite what one may expect as it does not have a direct impact on an individual. Some victims of this form of crime are accused of actually inviting the harm. There are several examples of these willing victims: investors risking their money rather than placing it in say, the safety of a pension scheme. Or perhaps, consumers who willingly buy the counterfeit products that are offered in the market. Or those who willingly choose to work in environmentally unsafe areas in promise of a higher wage. If an accident does occur, it is often the careless workers fault not the company that employs them. Even if a womans breast enhancement surgery goes wrong, she might be blamed simply because she chose to have a surgery for vain, selfish reasons either than medical. These cases rarely provoke sympathy from the court Nevertheless, there is a certain image or myth concerning victimization from white-collar crime. Regulatory law is set up in such a way that Croall (1992) states that consumers, workers and the public be protected from harm which they cannot combat. The consumer is unable to judge how genuine the product is, or if they are buying medicine, how harmful the side effects are. Thus if several people are killed in a workplace, the deaths are put down as something that could not be avoided rather than a companys neglect. In this stereotypical light, the law regarding white-collar crime can be rather skewed and misguided. An organization can be criticized by its misuse of the environment but anything concerning the well-being of the workers it employs is ignored. If a company bus crashes, the deaths of the innocent passengers within will draw the sympathy and not the driver who probably will be blamed for the incident for his or her carelessness. Victimization relating to white-collar crimes completely strays from the term conventional victimology which describes victimization on individual, conventional cases. Instead, it belongs to critical victimology which basically defines victims we cannot see (Walklate 1999). White-collar offences are, practically, invisible Despite all that, white-collar offences are quite capable of causing direct harm to a person and his finally. Trust is automatically lost and there is a sense of betrayal when financial fraud occurs and Levi (1999) states: Fraud lead to broken dreamsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦frauds can destroy happiness permanently, just as readily as any other crimeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Because victims know they have supplied funds or goods voluntarily and because the loss of their financial cushion makes meaningless all their lifelong savings and sacrifices. There is also a sense of betrayed trust when death is involved amongst employees due to a companys negligence. The grief felt is even heavier when the victims body takes some time to be recovered or one who has survived a horrible accident suffers from survivors guilt (Wells 1995). White-collar crime though often seen as indirect, can also cause physical damage to its victims and threaten the safety within ones family home. For instance, counterfeit goods and mass-produced food can be harmful or even tap water which is not properly monitored and/or cleansed. Even ones workplace could not be viewed as safe, say if a worker has strong allergic reactions to the pollen surrounding the area. White-collar victimization is not limited to humans; even the wildlife is threatened from pollution caused by large industries. Corporate crime can even lead to the loss of a quality life within a community. A large industry can easily squash any fine balance within the community, whether it is environmental or economical. Examples of these are waste disposal, noise pollution, drainage in resources and a rise in taxes. Large corporations suddenly settling down in a quite community often and do threaten any local small businesses which used to reside previously. Economic offences caused by white-collar crime are often felt by institutions rather than a single persons misfortune. An institution can suffer from money theft and corruption but sometimes, in order not to lose a grip in the market, the institution will either lower salaries or raise prices to counter this. Even in the name of competition amongst themselves, companies will break rules and spy on each other or go as far as to sabotage each others projects. White-collar crime also spans nationally and even globally. One might think that offences against a form of government might not deal with any victimization, but nonetheless it can indirectly affect individuals, such as increasing tax and decreasing public resources. In this case, it is hard to form any bonds of trust in organizations such as the police force if the latter is set deep into corruption. Globally, currency frauds particularly when it involves the Euro can lead to great losses and/or any frauds concerning public waste disposal and food will inevitably damage public health and safety. Either way, white-collar crime even if it seems impersonal can affect the individual. It is often asked, which individual is affected by white-collar crime and whether social status, gender or age comes into play. It is however, difficult to specify as white-collar crime is vague at best to begin with and crime surveys do not exactly touch that particularly subject as a result. Still, victimization does target several vulnerable groups more than others. There is a difference in victimization where gender is involved, as several feminist criminologists will argue. For instance, any fraud and accidents caused by pharmacy products usually affects the female population. Even in the workforce, women seem more vulnerable simply because they lack the technical expertise and thus render them more open to fraud scams. Even larger cases are schemes involving companies and falsely researched contraceptives which led to birth defects, infection and abortions/miscarriages. This did not stop the companies from distributing their dangerous products to needy, lower-classed countries. Even women seeking to enhance their looks with beauty products can be harmed. And those having breast surgery are not exempt either. In addiction, a wide array of side effects can follow dietary pills; there are 35 recorded deaths in the United States from these pills during the 1970s and 1980s. Products which are not genuine can often contain dangerous ingredients suc h as certain acids which are not labeled down. Corporate crime certainly expands to victimization of women in the workforce, for example Pearce and Tombs (1998) note that 20 million women work in conditions there are toxic risks a rather disturbing figure indeed. Furthermore, many women suffer from sexual harassment during work hours, particularly from their superiors, but are often forced not to seek legal help due to blackmail and fear of losing their jobs. There are many cases where men use their trustful profession of, say, a doctor in order to sexually harass their female patients. Even if white-collar crime does not harm a woman physically, it can still harm her economically. Expensive label products boasting miracle results are released daily, boxed in even more expensive, fancy packaging. These sort of products aim towards the disillusioned housewife who wishes to beautify herself and again the marketing behind the product takes advantage of the assumption that a woman lacks the knowledge in financial matters. Of course, this also boils down to false advertisement; the miracle results that the product claims to achieve are very misleading. More so, the products container is double walled thus containing far less than they should. Illusions of a products results are not just based on make up; salesmen, builders and investors often take advantage of the situation by catching a customer unawares. Despite the fact that victimization seems to be based on gender, women are not the only ones who are targeted by white-collar offences. Men are also in great risk; they can suffer from neglect concerning the rules at highly dangerous workplaces such as an oil rig or a mining tunnel. Still, women are more susceptible to product scams it seems, forever seeking ways to beautify themselves as society dictates them to. Corporate offences do not stop at gender, they continue to differences of age as well; the young and the old who in reality, need to depend upon others. The old are often victims when there is a serious neglect in food rules and regulations and often contract illnesses as a result. And like women, they also avidly spend a fortune on anti-age products which falsely advertise. Both children and the elderly can suffer physical and sexual abuse and usually they cannot complain; the elderly confused with their old age and the children too young to understand the meaning of morals. Most of the times, the old suffer when they are placed in an old peoples home- there, they are frequently neglected, fed unhealthy foods and given the wrong medicine which can be proved fatal. Children fall victim to unsafe toys and students can fall victim to their landlords where they are forced to inhabit an abode which fails all of its safety regulations due to their limited finances. Most famous of all are the pension schemes and home security. The elderly often fear of burglary and this can be taken advantage of selling them alarm systems that are counterfeit. White-collar crime often gives out the misconception that the poorer classes are robbed so that the rich can benefit, however its definition and the cases regarding it are much more complex than that (Van Swaaningen, 1997). Sometimes it is the rich that are targeted, lured into risky investments or those miracle beauty products simply because they believe that they have the money to spend it all. After all, how can a woman of the lower classes be able to afford breast surgery? Then of course, one might argue that that particular woman will probably be forced to buy a counterfeit product just because she could not afford the genuine article. Furthermore, evidence leads to state that the impact of larger scale corporate offences are more scattered; a train accident due to poor engineering and the deaths that follow regardless of social status, age or gender. And yet, one can not ignore how age and gender is significant to victimization. These conflicting discussions are coined by Levi (1995) as a complex moral arena. To further complicate things, it is general knowledge that well-to-do organizations will have an effect on struggling small businesses such as, buying them out or stealing their customers. Or, small businesses will target their poorer customers. Another fact is that it is the poorer consumer that feels the need to buy the cheapest product available and accidents in the workforce are usually workers who are confined to menial labour. Even on a global scale, it is usually a third world country that receives the waste dumping. To put it bluntly, it is the lower classes who feel the effect of corporate crime as they cannot compensate any resources stolen or wasted unlike their richer counterparts. They cannot seek legal advice as confidently as those who are more knowledgeable in matters regarding the market and thus, usually avoid any financial scam in the form of bad investments or dubious pension schemes. In short, those desperate few who lack the necessary information will most likel y be targeted. Unfortunately, white-collar victimization is not even listed in the Criminal Injuries Compensation Board and any other organizations that deal with victim support. There has not been any organized movement in support of this particular victimization (there was a movements in the United States that seemed promising but over exaggerated). This is due to the fact that white-collar crime is not viewed as dramatic and important as normal street-crime victimization; the victims often do not report their grievances, most of their misfortune is viewed as trivial and often blamed upon themselves. Unlike, for instance, victims of abuse, they do not form conferences and unanimously protest. In any event, the only movements that are formed are often associated with the environment or food. There is hope however. A victim does have the right to pursue legal action such as a law suit but sadly, the only time that a group is formed is usually after a large-scale calamity. Still, an organized group has a better chance of actually having something done rather than an individual struggling on his own. Therefore, it is safe to assume that the vast majority of white-collar and corporate crime is certainly not victimless. It is merely neglected as such offences are often not reported and thus it is unable to be proven clearly on a crime survey. It is not seen as something dramatic, unlike a vicious murder and is put in the backburner in favour of conventional criminology. People do suffer from white-collar crime, indirectly and directly and it does affect the standard of living whether it is based on local conditions or expanded over the world.

Resistance to the Nazis: The White Rose Essay -- WWII, German history

The Nazi Party, controlled by Adolf Hitler, ruled Germany from 1933 to 1945. In 1933, Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany and the Nazi government began to take over. Hitler became a very influential speaker and attracted new members to his party by blaming Jews for Germany’s problems and developed a concept of a â€Å"master race.† The Nazis believed that Germans were â€Å"racially superior† and that the Jewish people were a threat to the German racial community and also targeted other groups because of their â€Å"perceived racial inferiority† such as Gypsies, disabled persons, Polish people and Russians as well as many others. In 1938, Jewish people were banned from public places in Germany and many were sent to concentration camps where they were either murdered or forced to work. Many individuals and groups attempted to resist Nazism in Germany, but were unsuccessful. The White Rose, The Red Orchestra and the Kreisau Circle all advocated non-viol ent resistance to oppose the Nazi regime and even with the high risk of getting caught and potentially killed, the courageous members of these groups went after what they believed was right despite the serious consequences. The White Rose was formed in Munich in 1942 by students at the University of Munich named Hans Scholl, Sophie Scholl, Willi Graf and Alexander Schmorell. These students constantly heard others discuss the atrocities of Hitler’s regime and the disturbing stories of over 200,000 Jewish people being murdered. Hans Scholl, the leader of the White Rose group, decided to take action as he could no longer stay silent while so many civilians were being murdered. The White Rose group strived to raise awareness of Hitler’s actions and to help end Anti-semitism in Germany and ensure... ...ited States Holocaust Memorial Museum. United States Holocaust Memorial Council. Web. 12 May 2014. Sheehan, Sean. Why Did the Holocaust Happen? New York, NY: Gareth Stevens Pub., 2011. Print. Shuter, Jane. Resistance to the Nazis. Chicago: Heinemann Library, 2003. Print. "The Kreisau Circle." Kreisau Circle. Web. 14 May 2014. "The Germans Who Tried to Topple Hitler." BBC News. Web. 21 May 2014. "The Leaflets." White-rose-studies. Web. 20 May 2014. "The Red Orchestra (Die Rote Kapelle)." Berliner Themenjahr 2013. Web. 22 May 2014. ""The Red Orchestra": Actions of Little-known Nazi-resistance Group Are Brought to Light." Movies. Web. 22 May 2014. "White Rose (German Anti-Nazi Group)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Web. 12 May 2014. "World War II: The White Rose Resistance Group." About.com Military History. Web. 12 May 2014.

COBOL :: Essays Papers

COBOL In the summer of 1998, St Louis Public Schools ( SLPS ) chose to convert form it's IBM System/390 mainframe to a client server environment. Not only was the SLPS affected but the Public School Retirement System ( PSRS ) was also affected since they use their mainframe system. PSRS started looking for a solution for their processing requirements. They were debating on weather to obtain an existing package to replace their system If they did would the be able to convert it to support how they run their business, or would they have to change how they conduct business to match the new software. They were also confused as to what new equipment might have to be purchased since they currently were running on older standalone workstations without a server. The organization decided to purchase new workstations, a server, a high-speed networked laser printer and Windows/2000 workstation and server components. Due to the organizations small size they elected to hire two contract software engineers to assist in the conversion, as well as process year end systems. The company also had to select a programming language, they decided on COBOL, the SLPS had a free copy of Micro Focus Net Express COBOL called the University Edition. It is available for schools to utilize in a classroom situation. The software was reviewed, it was decided that it would be adequate for their needs. It had features necessary to satisfy the requirements. Net Express is a Windows based product that is extremely powerful. That mainframe COBOL code formed the basis of the conversion, The conversion consisted mostly of modifying select statements, CICS code, some program calls to mainframe support routines, 'compare' statements also had to be checked for sequence problems ensuring that a mainframe 'if' statements of 'equal to' or 'greater than' were still valid for an ASCII based environment. The company found Downloading software and data files from the mainframe relatively easy, they used a mainframe access program called â€Å"Extra!† Packed fields were unpacked on the mainframe, downloaded to the server, and repacked if necessary. After the conversion took place the next task was to conduct year-end processing. This involved many tasks for the organizations, including; closing out of last year's business, income tax, providing information to our retirees, allowing for Open Enrollment for various insurance plans, and providing data to our actuarial firm to assist in funding and benefit decisions.

Tropical Rainforest Destruction Essay -- Deforestation Essays

Tropical Rainforest Destruction Introduction â€Å"In the minute that it takes you to read this page, a piece of tropical rainforest the size of 10 city blocks will vanish forever† (Lewis, 1990, pg 40). Rainforests around the world are being destroyed at such rates, three hundred and sixty-five days a year. The rainforests are â€Å"home to over half of all living things [and]†¦cover less than 7 percent of the land surface of the globe† (Lewis, 1990, pg 14). This paper analyzes tropical rainforest destruction from many different perspectives because there are several contributing factors to the destruction of rainforests. Topics addressed in this paper include: an introduction to rainforests, causes and examples of rainforest destruction around the world, results of rainforest destruction and solutions to rainforest destruction. At the end of this paper there is an appendix to aid the reader in understanding the concepts presented. Why are rainforests important? Rainforests are an asset to the entire world. The destruction of rainforests worldwide is a problem because it eliminates habitat for wild life and depletes the earth of vital environmental services. â€Å"Environmental services are what nature provides for human beings at no charge. Conservationists point out that people take these services for granted, so they are undervalued, exploited, and disappearing†¦We rely on forests for wood, medications, and food†¦on plants to pump oxygen into the atmosphere and absorb carbon dioxide; on wildlife to keep pests in check and distribute seeds and pollinate plants that provide us with food and other goods†¦If we put a price tag on these services, we might be more disposed to protecting earth’s other living inhabit... ...edication will prevent the complete decimation and destruction of the rainforests upon which the planet so desperately depends. Literature Cited 1) Alexander Cockburn, S. H. (1989). The Fate of the Forest. New York: Courier International Ltd. 2) Gallant, R. A. (1991). Earth's Vanishing Forests. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 3) Gay, K. (2001). Rainforests of the World (2 ed.). Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc. 4) Institute, W. W. (2000). Vital Signs 2000 (1 ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 5) Josep M. Camarasa, R. F. (2000). Encyclopedia of the Biosphere (Vol. 2). Michigan: The Gale Group. 6) Jukofsky, D. (2002). Encyclopedia of Rainforests. Connecticut: Oryx Press. 7) Lewis, S. (1990). The Rainforest Book. Los Angeles: Living Planet Press. 8) http://www.brsi.msu.edu/rfrc/stats/wri/rank.html

Prototype

Prototype Theory Rosch (1976) has proposed an alternative to the view that concepts are com ¬posed from sets of features which necessarily and sufficiently define instances of a concept. Rosch proposes that concepts are best viewed as prototypes: a ‘bird’ is not best defined by reference to a set of features that refer to such matters as wings, warm-bloodedness, and egg-laying characteristics, but rather by reference to typical instances, so that a ‘prototypical bird’ is something more like a robin than it is like a toucan, penguin, ostrich, or even eagle.This is the theory of prototypes. As we saw in the preceding section, individuals do have ideas of typical instances of colors, and these ideas are remarkably similar among vari ¬ous cultural groups. Such similarity in views, however, is found not only in reference to birds and colors.A variety of experiments has shown that people do in fact classify quite consistently objects of various kinds according to what they regard as being typical instances; for example, (1) furniture, so that, whereas a chair is a typical item of furniture, an ashtray is not; (2) fruit, so that, whereas apples and plums are typical, coconuts and olives are not; and (3) clothing, so that, whereas coats and trousers are typical items, things like bracelets and purses are not (Clark and Clark, 1977, p. 64). The remarkably uniform behavior that people exhibit in such tasks cannot be accounted for by a theory which says that concepts are formed from sets of defining features. Such a theory fails to explain why some instances are consistently held to be more typical or central than others when all exhibit the same set of defining features. Hudson (1996, pp. 75-8) believes that prototype theory has much to offer sociolinguists.He believes it leads to an easier account of how people learn to use language, particularly linguistic concepts, from the kinds of instances they come across. He says (p. 77) that: a prot otype-based concept can be learned on the basis of a very small number of instances– perhaps a single one– and without any kind of formal definition, whereas a feature-based definition would be very much harder to learn since a much larger number of cases, plus a number of non-cases, would be needed before the learner could work out which features were necessary nd which were not. Moreover, such a view allows for a more flexible approach to understanding how people actually use language. In that usage certain concepts are necessarily ‘fuzzy,’ as the theory predicts they will be, but that very fuzziness allows speakers to use language creatively. According to Hudson, prototype theory may even be applied to the social situations in which speech occurs.He suggests that, when we hear a new lin ¬guistic item, we associate with it who typically seems to use it and what, appar ¬ently, is the typical occasion of its use. Again, we need very few instances †” even possibly just a single one — to be able to do this. Of course, if the particular instance is atypical and we fail to recognize this fact, we could be in for some discomfort at a later time when we treat it as typical. Prototype theory, then, offers us a possible way of looking not only at how concepts may be formed, i. . , at the cognitive dimensions of linguistic behavior but also at how we achieve our social competence in the use of language. We judge circumstances as being typically this or typically that, and we place people in the same way. We then tailor our language to fit, making it appropriate to the situation and the participants as we view these. (Wardhaugh, Ronald. 1998. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Blackwell Publishers Ltd. pp. 232-233. )

Attitude and Behaviour

It would seem reasonable to argue the existence of a link between attitude and behaviour and to further assume that it is those same attitudes that determine that behaviour. However, there are many variables to consider which may affect the strength of such a link. It is important to distinguish between the influence of different types of attitude (reference), the first type being attitudes towards general entities and the second being attitudes towards more specific ones. This essay will look at how attitudes can be a poor predictor of behaviour on a broad perspective but become effective predictors when looked at in a narrower and more specific way. However, the additional impact of a wide array of other variables undermines the accuracy of the link between attitudes and behaviour and complicates the drawing of clear conclusions. ‘Attitude’ is defined by Eagly and Chaiken in their book The Psychology of Attitudes as ‘a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour’. reference) In other words, an ‘attitude’ is a judgement or evaluation made about any ‘entity’ which can be assessed along a measurement of favourability. As well as a person’s attitudes differing in positivity, (i. e. some attitudes possessed can be positive, neutral or negative), they also can differ in strength, (i. e. one may feel more strongly about a certain topic than another), and therefore consider it a more important topic. In brief, ‘behaviour’ is the actions of an individual which can be objectively measured. Some may argue that attitudes are a weak predictor of behaviour. In 1969, Wicker, after reviewing studies such as that of Richard LaPiere, concluded that attitudes and behaviour are only slightly, if at all, related. LaPiere, in the 1930s, seemed to suggest very little correlation between attitude and behaviour. LaPiere travelled around America with an Asian couple at a time where anti-Asian prejudice was prevalent. Although concerned that the couple would be refused from many of the hotels along the way, he found that only one out of the 250 hotels did so. After his travels, LaPiere sent a letter to each of the hotels asking whether they would allow Chinese guests. Of all his replies, only one declared they would serve a Chinese guest. This study, and others like it at the time, seemed to suggest very few links between attitude and behaviour. However, there are a number of problems with this study, such as the fact that there is no guarantee that the person who answered the letter is the same person who let the Chinese couple stay. The question in the letter as to whether they would let a Chinese couple in is also too broad a statement as it does not specify if they are a ‘well-dressed Chinese couple accompanied by an American college professor’ (ref). The limits of the success of attitude predicting behaviour can also be seen by the fact that similar attitudes held by different people can lead to different behaviour from those individuals. Indeed, Thurstone wrote; ‘It is quite conceivable that two men may have the same degree or intensity of effect favourable towards a psychological object and that their attitudes would be described in this sense as identical but†¦ that their overt actions would take quite different forms’. ref print out) In other words, one cannot predict an individual’s actions according to his/her attitudes as two different people with the same attitude towards something may act according to that attitude in completely different ways. There are also many other factors which will determine how effective attitude is in predicting behaviour. One such factor is the strength of the attitude which one holds. The stronger one’s attitude, the more likely it is to predict behaviour. This is because if a person holds a very strong positive attitude towards something, they are likely to act positively towards it. However if that person holds another, weaker, attitude towards something, thereby valueing it of less importance, they will be less likely to act according to that attitude. Furthermore, an attitude based on direct experience rather than second hand information will be more effective in predicting behaviour. This was demonstrated in a study by Fazio and Zanna, 1981, whereby participants were asked to solve several puzzles. One the one hand, in the second hand condition, some participants were shown how to solve the puzzles, and on the other, in the direct experience condition, some participants were allowed to work on the puzzles beforehand. Attidude being measured as intrest shown, and behaviour being measured as the order and proportion of the puzzles solved, the test showed a correlation between attitude and behaviour of between . 51 and . 54 in the direct experience condition while only between . 22 and . 20 in the indirect experience condition. (ref printout). It can therefore be seen that attitudes can predict behaviour under some cercumstances, such as those layed out by Fishbein and Ajzen. The extent to which attitude can predict behaviour is also circumstantial to factors such as how one persives the importance of that attitude and what that attitude is based upon. Behaviour is also affected by other factors which may be opposing to the attitude held by an individual. Subjective norms and perceived behaviour controle also influence behaviour. Therefore, when looking at all three together, predicting behaviour may be effective, however, when looking at attitude by itself such predictions may be weak.

Walmart Case Study

Chapter 1& 2 Module 1 Wal-Mart Case Study Shannan Haynes St Gregory’s University Give a short account of the history of the company, and trace the evolution of its strategy. Try to determine whether the strategies evolution of your company is the product of intended strategies, emergent strategies, or some combination of the two. The Wal-Mart story began in 1962 when Sam Walton opened the first discount store in Rogers, AR. In 1970 Wal-Mart experienced significant growth and made huge advancements In1970 Wal-Mart opened its first distribution center and the Wal-Mart Home Office in Bentonville, AR. By 1970 Wal-Mart employed 1,500 associates and had 38 stores with sales of $44. 2 million. In 1970 Wal-Mart also began selling shares over the counter as a publicly-held company. In 1971 Wal-Mart’s stock had is first 100 percent split. At that time Wal-Mart had stores operating in five states. By 1975 Wal-Mart employed more than 7,500 associates and had 125 stores. By 1977 Wal-Mart was operating in 10 states and opened Wal-Mart Pharmacy. Their growth continued into 1980, when Wal-Mart stock split 100 percent for the fourth time. That year Wal-Mart opened the largest distribution center in Palestine Texas. In the late 1990’s, Wal-Mart became the largest private employer in the world. They employed 1,140,000 employees. In 2000 Wal-Mart appointed H. Lee Scott as its CEO. That year Fortune magazine ranked the company fifth in its â€Å"global Most Admired All-Stars† list and named Wal-Mart the third most admired company in America. Wal-Mart made a commitment to bring environmental sustainability into its business in 2005. They opened a store in McKinney, Texas that saved energy and conserved natural resources, and reduced pollution. They were also active in conserving critical wildlife habitats. By 2005 Wal-Mart employed more than 1. 6 million employees and had more than 6200 stores. By 2006, the number of employees grew to more than 176 million and 6779 locations. In February 2007 Wal-Mart helped launch Better Health Care Together, Later that year, Wal-Mart expanded its successful 4 dollar generic program. By 2007 Wal-Mart had save their customers more than $396 million on prescription drug costs. On February 1, 2007, Mike Duke took over as CEO. (Pereira, 2002) Sam Walton built Wal-Mart on Respect for the Individual, Service to the Customer, and he always strived for Excellence. He respected his employees and was committed to his customers. With commitment to his customers came low prices. Wal-Mart strategy is an intended strategy. It is clear and direct. It was put into place in the 1960's by Sam Walton, and refined over the decades. The company is proud of its strategy and even incorporates it within its moniker â€Å"Always Low prices, Always. † (Pereira, 2002) Identify the mission and major goals of the company. Saving people money was Sam Walton’s goal when he opened his first store 40 years ago. Wal-Mart still has the same goal today. Wal-Mart has expanded their savings to energy, prescription drugs and has partnered with suppliers and stakeholders to create a competitive advantage. Wal-Mart mission is to do well as a business but to also do good. (Walmart, 2009) Do a preliminary analysis of the internal strengths and weaknesses of the company and the opportunities and threats that it faces in its environment. On the basis of this analysis, identify the strategies that you think the company should pursue. Wal-Mart is the number one retailer in the United States. Wal-Mart has a reputation for low prices, convenience and a large selection of products. Wal-Mart has invested into technology and an international logistics system. Wal-Mart is global but has a presence in relatively few countries. Wal-Mart has invested in human resources and retention of their staff but still have extensive labor relation problems. Wal-Mart has been cited by labor groups for wage issues, shift scheduling, and workplace abuses. Wal-Mart has been accused by community groups of destroying the local retail environment in the downtowns of small towns. (Marketing Teacher , 2000) Wal-Mart still has many opportunities to merge, or form alliances with other global retailers. Wal-Mart can do more to call attention to its good deeds to help with their image issues. Wal-Mart can continue to expand its supercenters into large cities. (Avila, 2009) Who is the CEO of the company? Evaluate the CEO’s leadership capabilities. On February 1, 2007, Mike Duke took over as CEO of Wal-Mart. On June 5, 2009, Mike Duke announced that Wal-Mart was up 6 percent to $3. 35 per share and that 7. 3 billion dollars were returned to shareholders. He also said that sales surpassed 400 billion for the first time. Wal-Mart has strong balance sheets and access to capital markets. Mike Duke has enhanced training and development of Wal-Mart’s global workforce. He has also reiterated Wal-Mart’s commitment to low prices. Based on profits and the commitments he has outlined, I would say that Mike Duke leadership capabilities as CEO are very promising. (Walmart, 2009)+ Apply the five forces model to the industry in which your company is based. What does this model tell you about the nature of competition in the industry? Potential Competitors: Medium pressure Grocers could potentially enter into the retail side. Entry barriers are relatively high, as Wal-Mart has an outstanding distribution systems, locations, brand name, and financial capital to fend off competitors. Wal -mart often has an absolute cost advantage over other competitors. Rivalry Among Established Companies: Medium Pressure Currently, there are three main incumbent companies that exist in the same market as Wal-Mart: Sears, K Mart, and Target. Target is the strongest of the three in relation to retail. Target has experienced tremendous growth in their domestic markets and has defined their niche quit effectively. Sears and K-Mart seem to be drifting and have not challenged Wal-Mart in sometime. Mature industry life cycle. The Bargaining Power of Buyers: Low pressure The individual buyer has little to no pressure on Wal-Mart. Consumer advocate groups have complained about Wal-Mart’s pricing techniques. Consumer could shop at a competitor who offers comparable products at comparable prices, but the convenience is lost. Bargaining Power of Suppliers: Low to Medium pressure Since Wal-Mart holds so much of the market share, they offer a lot of business to manufacturers and wholesalers. This gives Wal-Mart a lot of ower because by Wal-Mart threatening to switch to a different supplier would create a scare tactic to the suppliers. Wal-Mart could vertically integrate. Wal-Mart does deal with some large suppliers like Proctor & Gamble, Coca-Cola who have more bargaining power than small suppliers. Threat of substitutes-Low pressure The market is crowded but Wal-Mart has the lowest costs, prices , profits, and market share Wal-Mart is able to negotiate for pricing. This analysis tells me that Wal-Mart does not have to worry about threat to new entrants because it has the capacity to produce more in order to lower the cost. There are high barriers of entry for companies trying to come into the retail industry because of the resources that Wal-Mart has. Are any changes taking place in the macro environment that might have an impact, positive or negative, on the industry in which your company is based? If so, what are these changes, and how might they affect the industry? Wal-Mart has received some bad press in the past and is making great commitments to helping the health and well-being of our nation. In 2005 Wal-Mart made a commitment to become more environmentally friendly. Wall-mart adopted an approach they call â€Å"Sustainability 360†. This approach looks for ways to reduce their environmental impact. In 2008, they announced a new set of clearly defined environmentally and socially responsible practices into their supply chain, â€Å"where goods are made in a way that protects our planet. †(Walmart, 2009) The economy has affected many companies recently however Wal-Mart's overall sales aren't rising dramatically, but they are raising, even as the economy grinds to a halt. (Gross, 2008) I believe Wal-Mart’s macro enviroment is affecting them both positvely and negatively. Identify any strategic groups that might exist in the industry. How does the intensity of competition differ across these strategic groups? Walmart’s closest competitors are those in its strategic group. Included in this group are Wal-Mart, Kmart, Target, and Fred Meyer. Wal-Mart is looking to grow. Their latest initiative, â€Å"Project Impact,† aims to make stores easier and quicker to navigate, improve customer service, and to move in on competitors' territory as much as possible. Project Impact calls for remodeling about 70% of Wal-Mart’s in the next five years, and improving sales in major competitors' fields, such as toys and crafts. Wal-Mart has more staying power and is able to dominate its competitors. Target is Wal-Mart’s closet competitor. Target is positioned well and has some staying power but Kmart was forced into bankruptcy. The implication of this on Wal-Mart’s competitors is bigger, more pleasant Wal-Marts. (Avila, 2009) How dynamic is the industry in which your company is based? Is there any evidence that innovation is reshaping competition or has done so in the recent past? The retail industry is dynamic with the previous innovation being department stores, mail order retailing and chain variety stores. However, shopping has changed. Big-box stores like Wal-Mart was influential in the evolution of retail trade, providing – among other innovative features – a one-stop convenience with low prices that many consumers seem to appreciate. (Emerald, 2006) In what stage of its life cycle is the industry in which your company is based? What are the implications of this for the intensity of competition both now and in the future? The Supercenter’s and Big Box stores are in their growth lifecycle. Led by Wal-Mart, the industry has displayed exceptional growth over the last 10 to 15 years, mostly at the expense of other retailers. What makes this unique is that the discount department store industry was perceived as being at maturity. There are signs that the industry is approaching saturation level. However, the industry is expected to do well through the recession. (Emerald, 2006) Is your company based in an industry that is becoming more global? If so, what are the implications of this changed for competitive intensity? Yes, the retail industry has become more global. Wal-Mart's international operations currently comprise 2,980 stores in 14 countries outside the United States. According to Wal-Mart's 2006 Annual Report, the International division accounted for about 20. 1% of sales. [ Wal-Mart has inventory management system that no other company is apt to come even close to competing with. This enables it to vary its inventory from store to store and across cultures Wal-Mart has gone global with its buying strategy, and it now puts Chinese suppliers in competition with suppliers from Mexico, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, as well as the United States. Globalization has changed everything by making technology and methods of production mobile, and by lowering business coordination costs. The big box discount retailers have changed the nature of global competition. (Palley, 2008) Analyze the impact of national context as it pertains to the industry in which your company is based. Does national context help or hinder your company in achieving a competitive advantage in the global marketplace? Wal-Mart has a strong economic affect in any area of the world. Wal-Mart has built an empire on a low-cost model but at the same time, Wal-Mart has faced criticism for labor practices and indirect burdens on our social and welfare programs. Some of the business practices of Wal-Mart like the employees’ wage-benefits package, and the underemployment of women and minorities are the subject of ongoing debate at the national level. Wal-Mart continues to work on its image and faces the same criticism globally as they do nationally. The reputation that Wal-Mart has here in the U. S. may hinder international expansion, but will not stop it. (USA Today, 2009) References Avila, J. D. (2009). How Wal-Mart Will Save Wal-Mart. Retrieved April 15, 2010, from B-Net Today: http://www. bnet. com/2403-13241_23-158179. html Emerald. (2006). Retrieved April 17, 2010, from Globalization's winners and losers: Lessons : http://www. emeraldinsight. com/Insight/viewContentItem. do? contentType=Article&hdAction=lnkhtml&contentId=1563323 Gross, D. ( 2008, Febuary 26). Slate. Retrieved from The Wal-Mart Puzzle: http://www. slate. com/id/2185221/ Marketing Teacher . (2000). Retrieved April 15, 2010, from SWOT Analysis Wal-Mart: http://marketingteacher. com/SWOT/walmart_swot. htm Palley, T. (2008). Manufacturing meets Wal-Mart: The Economics of Global Out-sourcing. Retrieved April 17, 2010, from Economics for Democratic and Open Societies: http://www. homaspalley. com/? p=19 Pereira, M. (2002, April ). Mike Pereira – Written Works and Opinions . Retrieved April 15, 2010, from A Case Study on Wal-Mart Stores Inc. : http://www. mike-pereira. com/subpage/docs/walmartcs. htm#ii2 USA Today. (2009). Retrieved April 17, 2010, from Wal-mart Watch: www. usatoday. com/money/†¦ /2003-11-10-walmart_x. htm Walmart. (2009). Retrieve d April 15, 15, from Our Mission: Saving people money so they can live better. : http://walmartstores. com/sites/sustainabilityreport/2009/ec_overview. html